Medical Terminology Daily (MTD) is a blog sponsored by Clinical Anatomy Associates, Inc. as a service to the medical community. We post anatomical, medical or surgical terms, their meaning and usage, as well as biographical notes on anatomists, surgeons, and researchers through the ages. Be warned that some of the images used depict human anatomical specimens.
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William S. Halsted, MD
(1852 – 1922)
American anatomist, teacher, and surgeon, William Stewart Halsted was born in New York City, USA to a wealthy family of English origin. His father was involved in charitable work and Governor and trustee to a city hospital. Not a brilliant student initially, Halsted took an undergraduate in Liberal Arts in Yale, CT., after which he entered the Medical College of Physicians at the Columbia College, where he excelled.
As a second-year medical student Halsted applied and obtained a position in surgery at a local hospital. In here he learned about Lister’s antiseptic technique and became an adamant proponent of it to reduce infection. In 1877 Halsted obtained his MD. After a short time as House Physician at the New York Hospital, Halsted traveled to Europe to further his education studying for two years at the Universities of Vienna, Leipzig, and W?rzburg.
Besides being at the forefront of surgical and antiseptic techniques (introducing the use of rubber gloves in surgery), Halsted was extremely concerned with the way medical students were taught in the US. He pioneered bedside clinical round discussions with the medical students after two years of basic sciences studies. Halsted developed the idea of a patient chart; he also developed the residency program for medical students in use today.
Halsted is probably the most influential researcher and surgeon at the turn of the century. He dedicated time to the study of intestinal anastomoses and the use of silk as a suture material. His experimental work in 1887 proved that the inclusion of the submucosa layer in an anastomosis was mandatory, as well that a single layered anastomosis was enough to attain closure. Perhaps Halsted’s most important contribution was the application and use of the scientific method to surgical questions. Halsted’s principles set the standards used today in surgical suturing and surgical stapling.
He also pioneered the development and surgical techniques for radical mastectomy as a treatment for breast cancer.
As a side effect of this studied in anesthesia and the use of cocaine for anesthesia, Halsted became addicted to this substance, a problem that followed him through the years. Without impairing his capacity as a researcher and a surgeon, Halsted eventually recovered. He died in Baltimore in 1922 as a complication to surgery.
Sources:
1. Dubay, A. D., & Franz, G. M. (2003). Acute Wound Healing: The Biology of Acute Wound Failure. Surg Clin NA, 83, 463-481.
2. Halsted, W. S. (1887). Circular Suture of the Intestine - An Experimental Study. Am J Med Sci, 436-461.
3. “William Stewart Halsted: his life and contributions to surgery” Osborne, P. Lancet Oncol 2007; 8: 256–65
4. “William Stewart Halsted: Surgical pioneer” Burress, P Endoc Today (2010), 8: (2) 22
5. “William Stewart Halsted (1852–1922) Neurological stamp” Haas, LF J Neurol Neurosurg Psych 2000;69:641
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Most medical words have only one root term and do not require combination as in the word [colectomy]. The situation arises when there is more than one organ or structure that is influenced by the suffix and the prefix (when present), such as [coloproctectomy]. Following are the basic rules for root terms combination:
- - Place an [-o-] between the root terms being combined. The combining vowel [o] means "and". The word [gastroenterology] means "study of the stomach and the small intestine"
- - Organize the root terms using their proximal to distal relationship. For a better explanation, click here
- - If the first root term ends in a vowel, the combining vowel [-o-] is not needed. An example are the root terms [-chole-], meaning "bile or gall". and [cyst], meaning "bladder or sac". The word [chole-cyst-ectomy] does not have an [-o-] between the root terms
- - If the proximal to distal relationship does not apply, then the words should be ordered in a way that is euphonic
- - The only time a hyphen should be used is the rare case when using an [o] is not possible. Based on this rule, the word [salpingooophorectomy] is correct, the word [salpingo-oophorectomy] is not. An example of this is the word [cross-section].
An example of rule #5 is the word co-author. Since adding an [o] as a combining vowel would give us the word cooauthor (which is not correct), a hyphen must be used.
In the case of the word [coloproctectomy] the word can be divided into these components" The first root term [-col-], meaning "colon", the combining vowel [-o-], meaning "and", the second root term [-proct-], meaning "rectum", and the suffix [-ectomy], meaning "removal of". Properly read, the word means "removal of colon and rectum]. The proper term is [coloproctectomy], please do not use the terms [proctocolectomy] or worse, [protocolectomy], because they are incorrect usage of medical terminology.
For information on how to read medical words, click here.
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In medical terminology there are many adjectival suffixes that transform a root term into an adjective. In general these adjectival suffixes have the meaning of "pertaining to", and complete the word. In many cases the adjectival suffix can be omitted and simply refer to the root term.
An example of this is the suffix [-ic] in the word [gastric], added to the root [-gastr-] meaning "stomach". The word [gastric] then means "pertaining to the stomach", or more simply stated, "stomach". The following lists some of the adjectival suffixes and examples of its use. For brevity, we have not given the root term meaning, but they can be inferred.
• -ic: Gastric; pertaining to the stomach, stomachal, or stomach
• -eal: Esophageal; pertaining to the esophagus, or esophagus
• -ar: Ocular; pertaining to the eye, or eye
• -ose: Adipose; pertaining to, or full of, fat. Refers to fat or fatty tissue
• -ine: Uterine; pertaining to the uterus or uterus
• -al: Surgical; pertaining to surgery or surgery
For information on how to read medical words, click here.
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The suffix component of a word is found at the end of a medical word after the root term(s) and also alters or influences the meaning of the root term. In the words [planter], [planted], and [planting] the suffixes are [-er], [-ed], and [-ing]. Some of the most simple suffixes are adjectival suffixes such as [-ic], [-al], [-eal], etc. all of them meaning "related to" or "pertaining to".
In medical terminology, the use of each root term can be multiplied many times over by the addition of prefixes and suffixes. Using the root term [-gastr-], meaning "stomach", we can form: [gastric], [gastritis], [gastrotomy], [gastrectomy], [gastrostomy], [gastrorrhaphy], [gastrography], [gastroscope], [gastroscopy], [gastropod], [gastroma], [perigastritis], [endogastritis], [intragastric], [epigastric], etc.
For information on how to read medical words, click here.
The listing of medical suffixes is quite large and should be mastered by professionals in the medical industry. Medical Terminology is one of the core competencies of CAA, Inc.
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All words have a foundation, called a root or a root term. The root is the minimal expression of a word that conveys a specific meaning. The word [hepa] does not mean liver, but the root term [-hepat-] does. There are some root words that have two presentations, like [-card-] and [-cord-], both meaning "heart", and even three presentations such as [-uter-], [-metr-], and [-hyster-], all of them meaning "uterus". All these following words have root terms meaning "uterus": periuterine, endometrium, and hysterectomy.
As an example, all the following medical terms: [pneumonectomy], [pneumonia], [pneumonitis], [pneumogastric], [pneumobacillus], and [pneumothorax] have the same common root term [-pneumon-], from the Greek [πνεύμονας], meaning "lung".
In medicine, surgery, and human anatomy there are several cases where there is more than one root term for the same organ. The terms [lienectomy] and [splenectomy] both mean "removal of the spleen", as the root terms [-lien-] and [-splen-] both mean "spleen". The same is the case in the following pairs: [-nephr-] and [-ren-], meaning "kidney"; [-cyst-] and [-vesic-], meaning "bladder"; [-pneumon-] and [-pulmon-], meaning "lung"; etc.
Root terms can also be combined to form complex medical terms, such as [gastroenterology], [leiomyomata], [cholecystectomy], [dacryocystolithectomy], [nephroureterocystourethrectomy], etc. To do this there are specific rules for combination.
For information on how to read medical words, click here.
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A prefix is a component of a word that precedes the root term and alters or influences the meaning of the root term. The root [port], from the Latin [portare], meaning "to carry" is found in the words export, support, and transport. The prefixes are [ex-], meaning "outside"; [sup-], meaning "above or on top"; and [trans-], meaning "across".
The same is true for medical terms. The words suprahepatic, infrahepatic, and transhepatic, all contain the root term[-hepat-] from the Greek [hepar], meaning "liver". The prefixes are [supra-], meaning "superior or above"; [infra], meaning "inferior or below"; and [trans], meaning "through or across".
For information on how to read medical words, click here.
The listing of medical prefixes is quite large and should be mastered by professionals in the medical industry. Medical Terminology is one of the core competencies of CAA, Inc.
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The word [mesenchymal] is the adjectival form of [mesenchyme] which arises from the Greek combination of [μέσο] (meso) meaning “middle”, and [χυμός] (chymos) meaning “juice”. In the early physiological theory of “humors” it refers to a type of “juicy” organ tissue. These organs needed to be activated by a thick fluid.
The term was used in embryology in 1881 to denote a portion of the mesoderm formed by loose cells that give origin to connective tissues.
The original meaning of the term [mesenchyme] has no application today, except being used to denote a tissue characterized by loose cells that are surrounded by a large extracellular matrix. Mesenchymal cells are able to develop into tissues of the lymphatic and circulatory systems, as well as connective tissues throughout the body, including bone and cartilage.
Some mesenchymal cells in the adult can be harvested and used as somatic stem cells.
Sources:
1. "The Origin of Medical Terms" Skinner, HA 1970 Hafner Publishing Co.
2. "Human Embryology" WLJ Larsen 1993 Churchill Livingstone
Note: The links to Google Translate in these articles include an icon that will allow you to hear the Greek or Latin pronunciation of the word.