Medical Terminology Daily (MTD) is a blog sponsored by Clinical Anatomy Associates, Inc. as a service to the medical community. We post anatomical, medical or surgical terms, their meaning and usage, as well as biographical notes on anatomists, surgeons, and researchers through the ages. Be warned that some of the images used depict human anatomical specimens.

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A Moment in History

Andreas Vesalius Bruxellensis (1514- 1564)

A Flemish anatomist and surgeon, Andreas Vesalius was born on December 31, 1514 in Brussels, Belgium. He is considered to be the father of the science of Anatomy. Up until his studies and publications human anatomy studies consisted only on the confirmation of the old doctrines of Galen of Pergamon (129AD - 200AD). Anatomy professors would read to the students from Galen's work and a demonstrator would point in a body to the area being described, if a body was used at all. The reasoning was that there was no need to dissect since all that was needed to know was already written in Galen's books. Vesalius, Fallopius, and others started the change by describing what they actually saw in a dissection as opposed to what was supposed to be there. 

Vesalius had a notorious career, both as an anatomist and as a surgeon. His revolutionary book "De Humani Corporis Fabrica: Libri Septem" was published in May 26, 1543. One of the most famous anatomical images is his plate 22 of the book, called sometimes "The Hamlet". You can see this image if you hover over Vesalius' only known portrait which accompanies this article. Sir William Osler said of this book "... it is the greatest book ever printed, from which modern medicine dates" 

After the original 1543 printing, the Fabrica was reprinted in 1555. It was re-reprinted and translated in many languages, although many of these printings were low-quality copies with no respect for copyright or authorship.

The story of the wood blocks with the carved images used for the original printing extends into the 20th century. In 1934 these original wood blocks were used to print 617 copies of the book "Iconaes Anatomica". This book is rare and no more can be printed because, sadly, during a 1943 WWII bombing raid over Munich all the wood blocks were burnt.

One interesting aspect of the book was the landscape panorama in some of his most famous woodcuts which was only "discovered" until 1903.

Vesalius was controversial in life and he still is in death. We know that he died on his way back from a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, but how he died, and exactly where he died is lost in controversy. We do know he was alive when he set foot on the port of Zakynthos in the island of the same name in Greece. He is said to have suddenly collapsed and die at the gates of the city, presumably as a consequence of scurvy. Records show that he was interred in the cemetery of the Church of Santa Maria delle Grazie, but the city and the church were destroyed by an earthquake and Vesalius' grave lost to history. Modern researchers are looking into finding the lost grave and have identified the location of the cemetery. This story has not ended yet.

For a detailed biography of Andreas Vesalius CLICK HERE.

Personal note: To commemorate Andrea Vesalius' 500th birthday in 2014, there were many scientific meetings throughout the world, one of them was the "Vesalius Continuum" anatomical meeting on the island of Zakynthos, Greece on September 4-8, 2014. This is the island where Vesalius died in 1564. I had the opportunity to attend and there are several articles in this website on the presence of Andreas Vesalius on Zakynthos island. During 2015 I also attended a symposium on "Vesalius and the Invention of the Modern Body" at the St. Louis University. At this symposium I had the honor of meeting of Drs. Garrison and Hast, authors of the "New Fabrica". Dr. Miranda


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Rectum

Anterior view of the rectum
Click for a larger image


The rectum is the most distal segment of the large intestine, along with the anal canal.

The word [rectum] arises from the Latin [rectus] and means "straight", such as its use in the name "rectus abdominis" for the "straight muscle of the abdomen".

It seems a misnomer, as the rectum of the human species is actually "S" shaped, as seen in the accompanying image. The reason for this discrepancy is that the rectum was named by Galen of Pergamon (129AD - 200 AD) who himself studied this structure in animals such as sheep and goats. In these animals the rectum is indeed straight, and since contradicting Galen was not acceptable (see Michael Servetus), the name has survived until this day. Even Andreas Vesalius has in his 1953 "Fabrica" a depiction of a straight rectum in the human! Click on second image to see a larger depiction of Vesalius' idea of the rectum. Although Vesalius stated that he wanted to show human anatomy as it is, and not as Galen said it should be, here is a demonstration that in 1543 he was still a lukewarm Galenist.

There is an area between the sigmoid and the rectum called the sigmoidorectal junction, although most anatomists call it (wrongly) the rectosigmoid junction (RSJ). This is an anatomically diffuse area with no clear anatomical transition between the sigmoid and the rectum or the RSJ from the rectum.

Rectum (Vesalius, 1543)
Click for a larger image

As the proximal end of the  "S" shaped rectum is not clearly discernible from the sigmoidorectal region, there is no clear agreement on the length of the rectum. Authors state that it measures approximately six to seven inches in length (15 - 17 cm), while others measure it as between 8-10 inches. The rectum  ends distally at the junction of the rectum with the  pelvic diaphragm. It is at this point that the anal canal begins.

The rectum is characterized by three transverse rectal folds, one on the right side, and two on the left side. These folds are know as the "rectal valves" or the "valves of Houston". The middle rectal fold is known to European anatomists as the "valve of  Kohlrausch" Their function in maintaining fecal material in place as well as their function in defecation is still under study. The rectal valves also have a high level of anatomical variation and may not be present at all.

Images:
1. "Tratado de Anatomia Humana" Testut et Latarjet 8 Ed. 1931 Salvat Editores, Spain
2. "De Humani Corporis Fabrica, Libri Septem" A. Vesalius 1543 Brussels 
Recommended reading: "Transverse Folds of Rectum: Anatomic Study and Clinical Implications" Shafik, A, et al. Clin Anat 14: 196-203 (2001).


Collateral circulation

Collateral circulation. The arrows indicate direction of arterial blood flow. The dashed lines delimitate vascular territories
Click for a larger image

The term "collateral circulation" is generally used to denote a situation where small blood channels dilate and provide blood supply when a pathology creates a stricture and diminishes blood flow (ischemia).

Although the above is correct, the term is also applicable to a normal, non-pathological situation most common in the human body. Please refer to the accompanying image for the following explanation. If needed, click on the image for a larger depiction. In the image, the arrows represent direction of flow.

Most organs or organ segments receive blood supply from more than one source of blood supply. In some cases, like the stomach, there are up to four arteries that provide blood supply to the organ: the right and left gastric arteries, and the right and left gastroepiploic arteries.

In other cases, like the small intestine shown in the image, blood arrives to the organ arising from several arteries (A, B, and C) that themselves arise from a parent structure. Because of hydrodynamics, the vascular territories of each artery (represented by dashed lines) tend not to overlap. If for any reason there is stenosis or blockage in any of these arteries (A,B, or C) blood will flow immediately through an alternate route and the organ will not suffer ischemia or necrosis

This is extremely important, as these collateral channels maintain blood supply to areas that may be affected by bending, such as the elbow and knee, which have a rich collateral network. Most of the organs in the body, with some exceptions (brain, heart), have collateral circulation.

Collateral circulation is extremely important for surgery, as surgeons can safely remove parts of organs without affecting the blood supply to the organ. This is also true for all gastrointestinal anastomoses.

Image property of: CAA, Inc. Artist: Dr. Miranda


Histology

Cardiac muscle (Dr. S. Girod, A. Becker)
Click for a larger image

Histology is the scientific branch that studies tissues.

The root term [-hist-] is used to mean "tissues", but how the term came to be used is somewhat convoluted. It arises from the Greek [histos], which indicates the mast of a ship, it then was used to denote a Greek weaver's loom central mast (where the fabric is woven horizontally), and then it was used to indicate that which was woven [histios], the fabric, or the "tissues".  The suffix [-ology] also has Greek origin from [logos] meaning a "book", a "treatise" or "to study". 

The concept of the body being formed by different tissues was pioneered by Marie-Francois Xavier Bichat (1771-1802) who called them "membranes" Bichat is considered to be the "father of Histology". The image shows a histological slide of cardiac muscle. Click on the image for a larger depiction.

Original image by S. Girod and A. Becker, courtesy of Wikipedia. 


Spondylosis

Spondylophytes on a lumbar vertebra
Click for a larger image

The root term [-spondyl-] arises from the Greek [spondylos] meaning "vertebra", and suffix [-osis] means "condition", but with the connotation of "many". The word [spondylosis] means " condition of many vertebrae". This does not add much to the use of this word as an indicator of a pathology, but it does indicate that there is excess bone in a vertebral pathology.

Spondylosis is an osteoarthritic degeneration of the vertebrae and the spine characterized by abnormal bony growths  on the vertebrae that can impinge on nerves and other structures causing pain and mobility problems. The definition of spondylosis also includes degenerative changes in the intervertebral discs.

The abnormal growth of portions of the vertebral body, usually forms "bone spurs", also referred to as "spondylophytes". The accompanying image shows a lumbar vertebra with spondylophytes. 

Image property of: CAA, Inc. Photographer: David M. Klein 


Rudolf Nissen, MD

This article is part of the series "A Moment in History" where we honor those who have contributed to the growth of medical knowledge in the areas of anatomy, medicine, surgery, and medical research.

Dr. Rudolph Nissen
Dr. Rudolph Nissen

Dr. Rudolf Nissen (1896 - 1981).  Dr Nissen’s life is extraordinary. Born in the city of Neisse, Germany in 1896, he was the son of a local surgeon. He studied medicine in the Universities of Munich, Marburg, and Breslau. He was the pupil of the famous pathologist Albert Aschoff (discoverer of the heart’s AV node, along with Sunao Tawara).

Nissen became a professor of surgery in Berlin, and in 1933 moved to Turkey where he was placed in charge of the Department of Surgery of the University of Istanbul. In 1939 he moved to the US, first to the Massachusetts General Hospital and later to the Jewish Hospital in Brooklyn, New York. After becoming a US citizen, he moved again in 1952 to Basel, Switzerland as Chief of the Department of Surgery, where he retired in 1967. He died in 1981.

His contributions to surgery are innumerable. He wrote over 30 books and 450 journal articles. Known for the development in 1956 of what is today known as the “Nissen fundoplication” for esophageal hiatus hernia surgery, Nissen also worked with his assistant, Dr. Mario Rossetti to develop the “floppy Nissen fundoplication”, also known as the “Nissen-Rossetti procedure”. This would be enough to honor this man, still, he (with Sauerbruch) performed the first lung lobectomy and the first pneumonectomy (called then a total pneumonectomy). In 1949 he performed the first esophagectomy with a gastroesophagostomy for lower esophageal cancer.

His personal life is even more interesting. Drafted at 20, he fought in WWI and was wounded several times. In 1933, under the Nazi regime, he was ordered to fire all the Jewish-German assistants under his care. Being Jewish himself, he was told that he would keep his job, Nissen could not take this. He resigned his position and moved out of Germany.

Another little known fact is that he operated on Albert Einstein in 1948. He operated on Einstein because of intestinal cysts. Having found a developing abdominal aortic aneurysm, he reinforced it with cellophane, undoubtedly giving his patient a few extra years to live. Einstein died in 1955.

As a personal side note, our good friend Dr. Aaron Ruhalter scrubbed in with Dr. Nissen while serving as a surgical resident at the Brooklyn Jewish Hospital!

Sources:
1. “Rudolf Nissen: The man behind the fundoplication” Schein et al. Surgery 1999;125:347-53
2. “Rudolf Nissen (1896–1981)-Perspective” Liebermann-Meffert, D. J Gastrointest Surg (2010) 14 (Suppl 1):S58–S61
3. “The Life of Rudolf Nissen: Advancing Surgery Through Science and Principle” Fults, DW; Taussky, P. World J Surg (2011) 35:1402–1408
4. “Total Pneumonectomy” Nissen, R. Ann Thorac Surg 1980; 29:390-394
5. “Historical Development of Pulmonary Surgery” Nissen, R. Am J Surg 80: Jan 1955 9- 15
Image in the public domain, courtesy of the Universitat Basel


-oma

The suffix [-oma] means "tumor", "mass", or "growth". It should be noted that the word [tumor] is originally Latin, and means "swelling" or "bulging". Sometimes the plural form [-omata] can be used.

It is a general misconception that the suffix [-oma] or the term [tumor] are synonymous with "cancer". This is not so. [Tumor] only means a mass and the type of mass, benign or malignant is not implied in the term. A cancerous mass will be denoted by the addition of the root term [-carcin-] meaning "cancer" therefore the combined root and suffix will be [-carcinoma]. There are other root-suffix combinations that also mean "cancerous".

The suffix [-oma] can be found in many medical words, such as:

  • Hematoma: from the Greek root [-hem-] meaning "blood". A mass of blood
  • Myoma:  from the root [-my-] meaning "muscle". A mass, growth, or tumor of muscle
  • Fibroma: from the root [-fibr-] meaning "fiber". A mass of fibers 
  • Fibromyoma: the combining form of "muscle" is [myo-], therefore "a mass of fibers and muscle" (Pl. fibromyomata)
  • Adenoma: from the Greek [aden-] meaning "gland". A mass that has a glandular look to it or a mass in a gland 

Sources:
1. "The Language of Medicine" John H. Dirckx Pub: Harper & Row 1976
2. "Medical Meanings" Haubrich, William S. Am Coll Phys Philadelphia 1997
3. "The origin of Medical Terms" Skinner, AH, 1970